IMEP #69 - A Caution for Hunters – Longhorned Ticks & Tick Disease

[BlueChip]

IMEP #69 - The Hunt for Cattle Tick Fever 1873-1875
"Understanding Science Through History"
View All Habitat History Newsletters on The Blue Crab ForumTM
Climate Cycles and Resource Health
The Southern Cattle Tick in Connecticut
And The Hunt for Texas Cattle Fever
A Cattle Catastrophe for CT in 1873
By Timothy C. Visel
Do Climate Cycles Spread Bacterial Disease?
July 2012
A Capstone Proposal September 2014
Updated in 2016 for Climate Cycle Indicators
Animal Science Capstone Questions May 2018
When Did Tick Disease Arrive in Connecticut?
The Sound School Research FFA-SAE Program
60 South Water Street
New Haven, CT
IMEP #69 - A Caution for Hunters – Longhorned Ticks & Tick Disease
December 2018 The Blue Crab ForumTM Hunting Thread

An Update From Tim Visel - December 2018
A Caution for Hunters – Longhorned Ticks & Tick Disease
This is not the usual content or subject area of material I usually post on The Blue Crab ForumTM, but Connecticut has had reports about western and southern animal ticks being introduced into Connecticut.  I thought that hunters might be interested in this paper (although it certainly does not relate to blue crabs, but my father liked walking the woods as much as crabbing) and ticks have been associated with salt meadows for many years.  But this is a new caution.  Our fields may now carry the long-horned Tick or East Asian ticks, Haemaphysalis longicornis, and this July was identified in Westchester County, New York.  Connecticut officials and researchers at the Connecticut Agriculture Experiment Station in New Haven  identified the ticks here on biting humans on October 1, 2018.  They can quickly spread and blood feed on game.  I appreciate the support of The Blue Crab ForumTM in letting fishers read my habitat history posts across and hope some hunters will be interested in this animal science research proposal into our tick/disease climate history as well.

Tim Visel, The Sound School
December 2018

"The Hunt For Cattle Tick Fever 1873-1875"

"The ticks are also important in doubtful cases.  Their presence seems as a label to tell us either from whence the creatures come of the exposure they have encountered.  Hence, when we find a sick animal that shows a high fever heat by the thermometer, and is infected with ticks, we can be almost sure, even though in the incipient stage, that it is the Texan Plague" (Pg. 402, Eighth Annual Report, Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 1875).

I have the honor to remain your obedient servant,

Dr. Cressy Massachusetts Agricultural College Report to the Connecticut Board of Agriculture and printed in the Eighth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture 1874-1875
Printed by the Order of the Legislature Hartford, CT-1875
Press of the Case, Lockwood and Brainard Company

Was the hunt for Texas cattle fever climate related? (See below AFNR Content Standards, which relate to a possible Capstone Project) Students interested in this SAE research should see Tim Visel in the Aquaculture Office or your FFA advisor for the appropriate SAE forms.
Capstone AFNR Content Standards for Animal Systems Careers
The National Council for Agricultural Education
Sample Careers:
Veterinarian, Livestock Producer, Animal Scientist, Embryo Technologist, Livestock Buyer, Animal Nutritionist, Livestock Geneticist, USDA Inspector, Meat Science Researcher, Feedlot Specialist
Performance Indicators:

These statements distill each CCTC Standard into more discrete indicators of the knowledge and skills students should attain through a program of study in this pathway. Attainment of the knowledge and skills outlined in the performance indicators is intended to demonstrate an acceptable level of proficiency with the related CCTC Standard at the conclusion of a program of study in this area.

AS.07. Apply principles of effective animal health care.

AS.07.01.02.a. Explain methods of determining animal health and disorders.

AS.07.01.02.b. Perform simple health-check evaluations on animals and practice basic emergency response procedures related to animals.

AS.07.01.02.c. Determine when an animal health concern needs to be referred to an animal health professional.

AS.07.01.03.a. List and summarize the characteristics of wounds, common diseases, parasites and physiological disorders that affect animals.

AS.07.01.03.b. Identify and describe common illnesses and disorders of animals based on symptoms and problems caused by wounds, diseases, parasites and physiological disorders.

AS.07.01.03.c. Treat common diseases, parasites and physiological disorders of animals according to directions prescribed by an animal health professional.

A Note From Tim Visel
When this paper was first started in 2011, research reports up to 2005 detailed a quarantine zone for cattle suspected of having Babesia bovis or Babesia bigemina, known as cattle fever or babesiosis.  Spread by ticks (also termed cattle fever ticks), Rhipicephalus annulatus and Rhipicephalus microplus are two species of ticks known to carry these parasites, which are protozoa.  After outbreaks of Texas cattle fever, such as the one described in this report, states took steps to treat animals and started grass burning to destroy tick eggs laid on fields.  This started in 1906 and declared eradicated by 1945.  A strict quarantine (buffer) zone on cattle imports along the Rio Grande River was established to prevent these warmer climate ticks from moving north.  However, since 1975 Texas cattle fever has at times reappeared, and since 2006 spread north into the United States far beyond the 1945 established quarantine zone.  The tick eradication quarantine line (no livestock could be moved across without official permits) has been breached (Texas A & M Agrolife Communications, Steve Byrns, February 2, 2017) and new quarantines (outside of the 1945 line) include over 500,000 additional acres. 
Although cattle remain the primary host-vector, white tailed deer and a non-native Nilgai antelope are known secondary vectors that threaten to expand the range of this tick disease into other areas.  This concern is still under review.  This is the disease of warm climates and these ticks live in warm hot areas.  Both tick species were themselves introduced from the Mediterranean region (suspected on imported Spanish livestock centuries ago) and need heat.  Post 1972, we entered a warm climate period known as a positive NAO and heat moved north again and with it tick disease.  This occurred it is thought after the coldest winter of our past century 1957-58.  Since 1972, New England has experienced four decades of mild winters until 2011 associated with a positive phase of the NAO.
In 1873, Dr. Cressey of the Massachusetts Agricultural College (University of Massachusetts today) had already established a clear climate connection.  In his printed report to Connecticut Agriculture officials in 1875, he describes Texas cattle fever and states (May 1874):
"Its native haunts in the country are the tidewaters of the gulf.  It never occurs spontaneously in a region of frost, and when carried beyond this limit in summer, soon dies out on the return of cold weather."   
The climate question is that the period of the 1870's was especially cold for New England, and in heat, the tick populations could move and be spread beyond host cattle into other hosts unknown at the time.  Winters were at this time extremely cold from Dr. Cressey's perspective.  What would happen if these bitter cold winters turned warm?
We now know that cross infection of bacteria tick disease can also occur.  Ticks are now suspected of carrying multiple bacterial strains as evidenced by a recent surge in Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, and the spreading of dog, wood and brown dog ticks.  Although many reports link the increase of Connecticut lyme (tick) disease to 1972, it may have been carried here long before as this cattle introduction in 1873 illustrates.  A common and conclusive factor appears to be the climate – my view.  After 1972, our winters became mild with much less snow – summers became very hot.  Bacterial disease thrives in heat, either on land or in the sea.  Since 1972, we have seen with warmer seawater temperatures a surge in Vibrio bacteria species (2011) now linked to coral reef bleaching (destruction) worldwide.
I respond to all emails at [email protected].
Cattle Ticks Introduced to Connecticut 1873
After the infected cattle died or were burned (a financial loss for CT farmers – no crop insurance), was it already too late?  Did the bacteria infect other hosts only to re-emerge a century later when Connecticut's forest and deer populations became dense and again hot?  Just how resilient is this strain of bacteria and could it be many bacterial strains?  Students interested in this Animal Science Capstone Project should see Tim Visel in the Aquaculture Office.
Ephraim H. Hyde (Born June 1, 1812 and died June 18, 1886 in in Stafford, CT) is mentioned throughout the report and Dr. Cressey refers to Ephraim H. Hyde as "Governor Hyde" who was Connecticut's Lieutenant Governor from 1867 to 1869.  He also served as President pro tempore of the Connecticut Senate.  The term "governor" was honorary and customary a courtesy that continues today.  The report gives the appearance that Connecticut's governor was traveling to area cattle farms suspected of suffering from tick disease.  Ephraim Hyde was a well-known cattle breeder from native and imported milk cows.  He began with Devons, but also bred Ayrshires, Durhams and Jerseys, concentrating on Devons.  His work in breed/stock selection is still recognized today for his work with Devons.  His interest in researching cattle disease was life long.  Ephraim Hyde was interested in cattle disease and genetics before the establishment of our nation's first Experiment Station in New Haven in 1875.  In The Sound School main office in the McNeil Building hangs a full-size poster of the Fifth Annual Fair of the New England Agricultural Society on the grounds of Hamilton Park, New Haven, Connecticut, September 1- 4, 1868, Class 1 Cattle, Schedule of Premiums No. 5 Ayrshire stock, Herds, Sweepstakes and Bulls Committee.  E.H. Hyde is a committee member – lower right corner.
He was President of the Connecticut State Agriculture Society from 1858 to 1881.  Ephraim Hyde is credited with supporting the Storrs brothers, Augustus and Charles, in regards to establishing a School of Agriculture (which became the University of Connecticut) eventually serving as a trustee and vice president.  Many reports link Ephraim Hyde to the concept of Agriculture education including the Storrs brothers and he once served on the Building Committee College of Agriculture in 1889.  Very detailed write-ups of Ephraim Hyde are on the Internet for those interested in the establishment of UCONN.
Introduction
For those interested in lyme disease, a rare account of possibly the first recorded introduction of tick borne disease to Connecticut vectored through cattle is presented for the first time since 1875. Texas "cattle fever" or "plaque" spread to Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, Vermont and Massachusetts.  The account found in a rare copy of the "Report of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture" follows bitter winters of 1872 and 1873, which saw Connecticut apple orchards destroyed by temperatures that measured as much as 35°F below zero for days. Most of Connecticut's apple orchards were destroyed then  (except coastal hilltop orchards) and cattle died in snow buried feed lots, even in barns themselves.  This bitter cold killed most "weak" animals, which were soon butchered. Connecticut farmers eager to replace lost winter killed herds imported Southern cattle by rail cars to Connecticut from the Cherokee Indian Nation and Texas, only to find out they were infested with ticks and fevers, joint swelling and death soon followed.  Native stock was especially hard hit as ticks suspected of the primary vector crossed over to them.  Animals covered with small ticks spread the disease.  As state officials and CT government officials raced to farms begging farmers not to hide or conceal cattle for disposal.  Unfortunately, by the time these efforts were known, cattle were sold to neighboring states as well.
Many primary (valuable) oxen teams were killed when they touched cattle and ticks spread to them. Many farms were ruined financially by this sad account, which has faded from our agricultural history.*
*This 2012 paper has not been previously made public. The account is now under review by the New Haven Agricultural Experiment Station as of July, 2014. The source and content of the report has been confirmed and asks many similar questions about current lyme disease vectors and climate connections, predating tick occurrence reports in the middle 1970's from Lyme, CT.
The paper should be ready for distribution by November 9, 2014 as a direct vector connection to ticks which blood feed and to the possible transmission of lyme disease by related ticks.  Students interested in animal diseases may pick this topic area as a Capstone.  Many such disease outbreaks are seen have climate cycle indications as similar to Malaria outbreaks in New England (See Mosquito War Claims Connecticut Marshes 1901-1915, IMEP #16, posted on The Blue Crab ForumTM Fishing Eeling and Oystering Thread, May 29, 2014).  Howard N. Simpson wrote about Malaria in the Connecticut Valley, The Valley Newsletter, April 1982 (See Appendix #5).
Addendum- April 2016 - Climate Habitat Changes, Salt Marshes and Bacterial Diseases – The Cold Winters of 1872-3
Tim Visel, The Sound School – Viewpoint of Tim Visel
Since compiling this fact sheet in 2013 and as a member of the EPA Long Island Sound Study Habitat Committee, additional research has uncovered climate and habitat changes for many marine species, all temperature and energy related.  This bitter cold also recorded by the CT Board of Agriculture in 1874 by Philo S. Beers of Cheshire, CT as Greenwich, CT became New England's Bay Scallop Capital. Oyster diseases occur in hot/dry periods in cycles, lobsters without Vibrio shell disease thrive in much cooler waters subject to periodic energy periods. In times of tremendous heat and low energy, bay scallops become very scarce but blue crabs thrive in our waters under such conditions. Long-term studies are required to detail the impact of climate and energy - upon seafood and fish/shellfish disease outbreaks. Climate conditions have long caused hardship for us especially for parasites that blood feed, such as Malaria that impacted Greenwich, CT at the turn of the century. From 1912-1913, Greenwich reported 900 cases (See W.E. Britton, 1912, The Mosquito Plague of Connecticut Coast and How to Control It: Bulletin, CT Agricultural Experiment Station 173-1-14) and its efforts to eliminate mosquito habitat recorded in public health documents (The History of Public Health Entomology at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904-2009, Bulletin #1030, Anderson 2010, pg. 12).
The great outbreaks of human disease in the Middle Ages can be linked to environmental carrying capacity, population density, and climate.  Connecticut also has seen wide shifts in energy and climate within the last two centuries.  Regarding climate and mosquito vector diseases, Malaria is now known that public policies in the 1950's now changed public policies toward coastal salt marshes, which had "miserable diseases" in the five decades since The "Great Heat" 1880-1920.  That is when mosquito malarial spread disease from Greenwich, Connecticut to other parts of the state. It would be very difficult to imagine salt marshes preservation discussions earlier in the 1910-14 period with local communities and emergency efforts were underway to raise money to fill in salt marshes (ordered by state and local health departments) then linked to disease spread by mosquitoes (Malaria) to the public perception and value of these salt marsh areas today.  But nevertheless, they existed and guided public policy discussions here a century ago.  They were very different to the values and importance of salt marsh ecosystems mostly thought of today.
An excellent review of the regulatory case history of state/local efforts to fill in salt ponds and salt marshes or to drain them to eliminate mosquito habitat can be found in the paper titled "The Full Circle: A Historical Context for Urban Salt Marsh Restoration" by David G. Casagrande of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.  It is estimated in the Malaria Panic of 1912 (See Mosquito War Claims Connecticut Marshes 1901-1915, Posted on the Blue Crab ForumTM or CTFishTalk Saltwater ReportsTM, May 2014 as IMEP #16) that 50% of the total acres of Connecticut salt marsh was filled or drained resulted from these public health department directives.  As the massive heat waves occurred in Connecticut from the late 1880s, the Connecticut General Assembly declared salt marshes a "public nuisance" in 1895.  Contrary to popular belief, farmers also opposed filling of coastal salt marsh for loss of a valuable salt hay crop.  Disease control and salt marsh management was conducted by the New Haven Agricultural Experiment Station for this reason – to give farmers a voice in this public health debate over the future of Connecticut's salt marshes and they hay crop they contained. A century later, grid ditches (lateral trenches), a compromise in many towns, can still be seen on many remaining Connecticut salt marshes.  It was the heat that caused the loss of once numerous salt ponds along our coast, filled to eliminate potential mosquito habitats.  The salt ponds part of the Bayview Park designed by Frederick Olmsted (who also designed the Boston Commons) are now the baseball fields next to The Sound School.  All that remains of these once tidal salt ponds today is the granite seawall and tide gate, directly north of The Sound School. (The City Point Association has a website, which details the history of Bayview Park.  It is excellent and contains a valuable history of this once very popular park.)
Today, we acknowledge that the 1950's was a time of much colder winter temperatures, and salt marsh mosquito spread diseases had all but disappeared from Connecticut shores.  A concern that soldiers who fought in World War II may bring Malaria to our shores did not materialize (See Curtis R. Best, "A History of Mosquitoes in Massachusetts," November, 1993).  The understanding of marine habitat value of the remaining salt marshes around fish and shellfish species we call seafood then greatly changed.  However, at one time, Connecticut declared salt marshes a public nuisance and a health hazard, ordering many to be filled to end the mosquito populations.  It's now thought it was just too cold.  Into this great heat of 1880-1920, salt marshes turned soft, some collapsed leaving holes (pannes, Nichols 1920) and farmers noticed that to harvest salt hay, horses now needed a special "hay shoe" much wider that would keep horse teams from sinking in this soft salt marsh.  In time, some salt hay marshes were abandoned as noted in W.E. Britton, State Entomologist, in Appendix 3.  Malaria blood parasite is thought to be very similar to Babesia, a protozoan parasite which causes a hemolytic disease known as Babeosis that often closely resembles malaria-like symptoms – broadly termed as Lyme Disease, and Lyme Disease appeared after a long New England cold period associated with a negative NAO to a different period of warmth and winters with little snow, a positive NAO.  The snowfall amount for the winter of 1973 was one inch, and in 1873, it was several feet.
As such, the 1873-1874 account predates any other tick disease account by at least a century and correctly describes clinical manifestation of perhaps Babeosis symptoms that would be compiled nearly a century later (1972-1973).  The type of transmission and similarity of Babeosis to Malaria symptoms and diagnosis raises questions about the previous century of Malaria outbreaks were perhaps misdiagnosed and whether ticks that carry the Babeosis parasites survived on farms at low infection/incidence levels until The Great Heat, from 1874 to 1888 when Malaria cases began to appear.  It is thought (my view-T. Visel) that considering the number of ticks on cattle brought to Connecticut, some became a vector to barn mice (field mice) living in farm cattle barns perhaps for generations and, in fact, may have carried many bacterial strains.  We know this is the case with ticks carrying several variants termed lyme disease today.
Finally, if Malaria long recognized to be vectored by mosquitoes and Babeosia, which has a "similar" pathology via ticks (blood feeding), both could benefit from warmer temperatures and relatively mild winters.  Questions were raised as to the linkages of lyme disease bacteria Borrelia burgdorferi to deer ticks Ixodes scapularis and most recently white-footed mice Peromyscus leucopus here in Connecticut.  Both Malaria and today lyme disease have a strong low grass/salt marsh habitat connection.  This habitat connection was detailed in a strong way in a publication titled "The Mosquito Plague of the Connecticut Coast and How To Control It" (CT Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin #173, July 1912). 
The 1873-1874 account does lead to the question of ticks that could have lived in cattle barns vectored bacteria strains to mice and reappeared in native deer populations that grazed near cattle feed lots when the climate was warmed a century later (1973).  This climate pattern is known as the positive phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation, abbreviated to the "NAO."  This weather pattern was brought to the public view by Hurd Willett of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1960's with increased use of the term for the "polar vortex" and later Harry Van Loon pertaining to the oscillation of polar jet "waves" in the Northern Hemisphere we term the NAO (See Hurrell, Harry Van Loon, Decadal Variations in Climate Associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation, July 1997, Vol. 36, pg. 301-326). 
Malaria has long been associated with warm to hot climate factors (See Appendix #5 and notations by Howard Simpson).
An Account of Texas Cattle Fever – Climate & Disease Implications
Eighth Annual Report to The Connecticut Board of Agriculture 1874-75
Lockwood & Brown Company, Printers
Hartford, CT 1875

The amount is found in the book of the 7th annual meeting and reported by the Connecticut Board of Agriculture held at the Tontine, New Haven, Connecticut on May 27, 1874. This account raises the question of climate on the occurrence and severity of blood transmitted disease.  Page 402 begins the description and account of an introduction to Connecticut and other states in New England and the west along the lines of transportation [most likely railroad lines] of Texas Cattle Disease on imported stock from southern states [Report of Dr. Cressey to the Honorable Board of Cattle Commissions of Connecticut, 1875].  Since the report was issued in May 1874 and refers to the previous August 1873.
It is a scripted account- more familiar terms occur in brackets [ ] quotes with quotation marks - those areas that specifically mention ticks are in bold print.  The winter of 1872-1873 was devastating to Connecticut farmers.  Many lost entire fruit orchards.  Apple orchards were hit very hard by this spring cold, but livestock suffered as well.  To replace winter killed cattle, Connecticut farmers purchased "Western Cattle," which when they arrived in Connecticut were covered with thousands of small ticks and quickly assumed to be the source of Texas "cattle fever," which soon spread to native stock.
In August 1873, Cherokee and Southern cattle are brought to Connecticut markets (most likely by rail) some were slaughtered (for meat) and some sent immediately to pasture.  It is suspected that the pasturing of cattle led to infections in New York, Massachusetts and Vermont before the extent of the problem was recognized by the industry.  Native stock was exposed and lingered for a long time "owing to the extreme warm weather of last autumn" (Fall 1873).
*Current literature describes Texas Cattle Disease as now subject to a strict United States quarantine zone - declared by 1943 to be eradicated to just South Texas, the first case of human babesiosis was recorded in 1957, Zagreb, Croatia.  An estimated 149 cases have been confirmed in Connecticut Epidemiologist 2014 (See Cattle Fever Tick Surveillance in Texas in abstract in Appendix 1, which describes this movement of tick disease which started in 1868 in western states).
Texas Cattle Disease pg. 402-419 of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture Report Complete photocopies of the report are available by request by e-mailing Tim Visel at [email protected]
Tim Visel comments in [      ]
Report of Dr. N. Cressey of the Massachusetts Agricultural College
"Early in the summer an unusual large number of Cherokee and Southern cattle were sold in our markets.  It is hard to determine exactly the date of exposure because people were reluctant to report the disease deaths (of cattle) that occurred before knowledge of the outbreak was known; some sick cattle have been slaughtered for food, the full extent of the outbreak may never be fully known - it occurred here [Connecticut] in the middle of August [of 1873].
It first appeared in Massachusetts, September 1873- three of the five infected cattle died.  Some western steers were turned out to pasture and spread [ticks]- several other infected steer were buried whole.  Dr. E. F. Thayer conducted the investigation but found no infected animals.  It [Texas "cattle fever"] also appeared in Springfield, MA, with the arrival of Texan cattle - cattle west of the River [Connecticut] suffered the most - 18 cattle died, especially those driven [moved by foot] to Connecticut and disease followed them.  Stock driven from Albany, NY to Pittsfield, MA. had similar patterns.  By October (3rd, 1873) Henry Haywood of Rutland, Vermont - disease of this natives had happened and several [head] had died.  A number of carloads (railroad cars) of Texan and Western cattle had been slaughtered on his farm since June and mixed with native stock "he noticed peculiar ticks on them and about the first of September he discovered that the same parasites were to be found on his native cattle" - Mr. Haywood had lost two valuable cows and an ox, other neighboring farms had the disease whenever the stocks were mixed.
The Regional Texas Fever Outbreak was to include Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut - all outbreaks linked to Southern cattle.
Connecticut's Case History 1873 – Timeline Summary compiled by Tim Visel from Cressey report: (pg. 402-419 Texas Cattle Disease)
•   Elmer Fairchild of Newtown, CT reports the disease, August 25th. Several cattle died, I (Dr. Cressey) notified Secretary Gold for Inspecting the sick.
•   Herd of William Stillson - infected lost two in process burning the third spleen (disorders) - suspicious of Spanish Murrain or anthrax
•   Called upon Drs. Bennett, Judson and Wilcox of New Haven, CT for veterinary examinations
•   Second visit to Fairchild from September 9, examination of an animal "I found the Southern cattle ticks in various stages of development on nearly all of Fairchild's stock" the presence of these parasites was very significant, and thus was (in Dr. Cressey's mind) very significant and thus enabled us at once to trace out the origin of this disease."
Timeline of Exposure
•   Mr. Fairchild purchased a number of Cherokee [steer] mingled and sold to area farmers - disease soon appeared.
•   Aaron Treadwell of Redding, CT purchased Cherokees', farm now infected animals sick
•   Several cattle were opened (pathological examination) and saw stomach, bowels and spleen involvement (Pg. 406)
•   Georgetown, CT sixty-three western steer from Olmstead and Osborne two died on the road near Branchville CT; liver and spleen greatly enlarged - many deaths.
•   Oliver Taylor of Danbury, CT bought forty of this herd, knowing they were sick- as an experiment.
•   I (Dr. Cressey) visited Albany (Sept 12th) with Levi Stockbridge of Amherst, MA (Chairman of the Massachusetts Cattle Commission) - joined by Dr. E.F. Thayer, a veterinary surgeon of Boston - although no sick animals were observed. We learned at several carloads of far west states (cattle) had passed through there "some of which were infected with ticks."
•   Prof. Stockbridge once myself for a meeting at Newtown, CT (next day)[September 13, 1873]
•   Great Barrington, sick cattle inspections learned Fairchild herd several more had died - Ready to see Treadwell's stock but no new cases
•   Georgetown, CT another sick steer - Olmstead and Osborne stock, died soon after our arrival.
•   Governor Hyde and Dr. Cressey visited Olmstead and Osbourne herd, six more had died - denied access to bodies for examination.
•   August 17th obtained an urgent call from T.A. Rogers of West Springfield, MA - a new outbreak of the disease in native cattle soon traced to Cherokees purchased by D.H. Baldwin, local butcher, purchased earlier in the summer for beef. "The ticks were very plenty there and on some creatures that never had the disease or, if at all, it must have been very light."
•   August 18th visit to New York, New York City Bull's Head Cattle yard, inspected a few car loads [railroad] Moreau Morris, MD, Sanitary Inspector for the New York Board of Health suggest quarantine [immediate]. [Small ticks suspected – T. Visel]
•   October 3rd - called by Governor Hyde at Stafford, CT to examine western cattle, the Dimmock Brothers had purchased, suspicious of disease - one steer had an elevated temperature
•   October 12th - Stafford, CT: Dr. M.B. Fiske had an oxen hauling freight from the train depot when a cattle train went down.  Although no direct contact was made, one of the team had died which had "the ticks."  The other, in progress with the disease, was sacrificed for science - Governor Hyde was present.
•   October 30th, last cases observed at Tariffville, CT visited farm, 25 steer died in total.
•   November 14th, one cow that had been sick for 8 days died.
•   My records show over 75 animals as having died in CT.  Mr. Fairchild of Newtown, CT lost his herd.
Pathology Examinations (Summarized) – Dr. Cressey
1. Very enlarged spleens - some 5 times normal size
2. Blood changes - "hae maturia"
3. Enlarged livers
4. Gall bladder involvement
5. Swollen kidneys
6. Bloody urine - disease is frequently "red water death"
7. The hearts and lungs remain clear
8. The report notes the changing characteristics of red blood cells
Incubation/symptoms
Drop in milk production, difficulty walking muscle tissue trembling - skin hot and dry - blood in urine; a tremendous fever from 100oF to 107oF - fatal cases. [Note: See Appendix 2 "Texas Cattle Fever Tick," Texas Animal Health Commission, 2017 to see how closely Dr. Cressey's clinical presentation matches today's]
"The ticks are also important in doubtful cases; their presence seems as a label to tell us either from whence the creature came or the exposure they have encountered. Hence we find a sick animal that shows a high fever heat by the thermometer and is infected with ticks, we can be almost sure even through in the infected stage, that it is the Texan Plague."
Capstone Questions
For the modern species of Babesia, the vector is Ixodes scapularis, the "deer tick", and host species white tail deer. But the association of these ticks to deer may be connected to a second host population.  Could the 1874 "cattle tick" bacteria be the same as the 1974 bacteria deer tick?  Did some of the 1874 ticks survive by infecting the white-footed mouse, Peromysies leupopus, which acted as bacterial reservoir and was known to live in or near barns and pastures only to infect the growing deer population in the 1960's and 1970's a century later?  To address questions regarding possible vectors, host "barns" would need to be in continuous operation – several generations for barn/field mice to serve as blood hosts for ticks.
In 1875, Connecticut had Babesia and 1900 Malaria and today we have West Nile, Babesia and Lyme disease (several types).  In the 1950's, a cold period no evidence exists for any of them.
What about Today?  Is Babeosis Malaria by another name?
What was evident from other reports in the same report, which describes extremely well the cold temperatures during Connecticut's winter of 1872-73, below 0o degrees was so long and severe that apple trees froze and died.  Introduction: Philo S. Beers of Cheshire, Connecticut makes a report to the Connecticut Board of Agriculture in 1874 regarding the bitter cold winter of 1872-73 and its impact upon fruit trees writing on pages 325-327:
"The cause of such a calamity is not in doubt.  The winters of 1872-3 was the coldest on record, and the mercury sank to a lower point, according to the records kept in New Haven, than for the last one hundred years.  The mercury at my house indicated, on the coldest morning, 22 degrees below zero.  No trees were killed either in the nursery or orchard; a very few in the nursery were affected by the cold, showing it in the discoloration of the wood in pruning, but not enough to affect the growth, the following summer. 
One-half mile north, and fifty feet lower in a hollow, the same morning, and the same hour, the mercury indicated 30o below 0.  There I had another orchard of apple trees, and many limbs were killed entirely, both on grafted and natural trees, they had not, and never will, recover from the effects of that cold morning.  In the north and south parts of this town, in the valleys, the mercury sank to 36o below 0, at this time, and it was in these places that some whole orchards were killed, others on a little higher ground suffered less, part of the trees being killed, and others started with a little life and have since blighted and died.  Apple, pear, peach and quince trees suffered the same fate.  I visited may parts of this state in the meantime, and find in all the valleys more or less, according to the depression of those valleys; but little loss has been sustained on high ground in a portion of the state." [From this time, it became a practice in Connecticut to plant new orchards on hilltops – T. Visel]
The ticks carrying Babesia would mostly not survive these cold temperature so to persist in Connecticut the ticks would need constant re-introduction (farmers soon stopped purchasing "drive" or Western cattle) or the ticks would need to find a new host in which to survive the cold winters.  Although no specific evidence exists and the time period now makes it difficult to confirm - ticks (bacteria) may have persisted in barns for generations, perhaps in barn mice and other small mammals.  Barns, although not heated in the 19th century, were warmer and contained other warm blooded animals, and isolated pockets of infected mice could have survived until a much warmer climate period of the late 1880's and 1890's.  This unusually warm period in New England lasted until 1921.  Could some of the turn of the century Malaria cases been misdiagnosed as Babesiosis? I think that the possibility exists, at low levels or blended with Malaria outbreaks. Even today, the two are often confused.  It would be interesting to look at later Connecticut Board of Agriculture reports and compare other disease occurrences from this era. What could be relevant to today's resurgence in Babeosia is that mice have been identified also as a lyme disease carrier organism and deer populations host as the vector the deer tick - but could be the same "cattle tick" bacteria described by Dr. Cressey in 1875?  The deer population in CT in the 1900s was very low--much of Connecticut was cleared agricultural land then or succeeding to grasslands.  Farmers routinely shot deer feeding on corn silage.  Winters were often cold as summers hot and absent a strong forest canopy provided deer little protection from deep snowfalls. The deer population was minimal and limited found mostly to the northwestern sections of CT.  During the 1950's climate features here often included harsh winters and deep snows burying food for the deer, but the late 1960's and 1970's saw New England winters turn remarkably mild and between the renewed understory to trees in succeeding agricultural fields with a maturing forest and mild winters deer populations here soon soared.  In time, a new outbreak of Babesia appeared and this one impacted people as well as deer and mice for that matter.  Babesiosis would be known for the same Malaria like symptoms (protozoan parasite) and the source of the infection is still unknown.  What of the farmers who purchased southern cattle in the 1870's?  Could a former form of Babesia have been present on these farms or any of the farmers suffering from lyme disease themselves for years? The largest question of which protozoan parasite could pass from cattle to human host is uncertain. 
What is certain is that the industry was familiar with Texas fever and had made the link to ticks vectoring the disease and climate over a century ago.  The recent outbreak of lyme disease bacterium and Babesia, the protozoan parasite, is connected somehow by climate and temperature and also linked to ticks, which fed on an expanding deer population?  Tick outbreaks and control on grasslands has intensified in the last two decades to limit tick populations.
Finally, questions also remain about the turn of the century Malaria outbreak if it ever became confused with a tick-borne disease.  If Babesia, a malaria-like parasite that causes hemolytic anemia (loss of red blood cells) is spread by ticks, can ticks then vector the bacteria on common hosts spread by mosquitoes?
Those are some of the unanswered questions about climate, the presence of hosts and disease vectors in marsh habitats for Connecticut.  As more and more people now live and visit the shoreline habitat links are critical areas to explore.  Tick borne disease has been known for quite some time; its presence may have a climate link dependent upon sufficient habitat for host and vector organisms.  If cold winters are responsible for low incidence and warmer temperatures high incidence then reintroduction of the disease may also be periodic – and helped by man.
If so, then a more complete understanding of host animals is required and differences in habitat quality explored.  The science of the introduction remains unknown but it is here nonetheless.  It may not be coincidental that the occurrence of Malaria a century ago was associated with marshes, or the current lyme disease outbreak associated with a coastal community with a large expanse of salt and fresh water marshes in Lyme, Connecticut.  We also have colonial reports of Native Americans "firing" the coastal marshes in late August during a hot and usually dry time for Connecticut.  It is suggested that the use of fire was an early form of disease control.  It is known that salt marshes contain ticks known to spread lyme disease.
These are some of the habitat/host implications of shore life during warm climate periods and certainly needs additional research.  Dr. Cressey warned New England farmers of this coastal climate/habitat connection in 1875 with this statement, regarding Texas "cattle fever" ticks (Page 402 - Board of Agriculture Report):
"Its native haunts in this country are the tidewaters of the gulf.  It never occurs [Texas "cattle fever" – T. Visel] spontaneously in a region of frost, and when carried beyond this limit in summer, soon dies out on the return of cold weather."
Or did it?  Did the bacteria survive in other hosts?  That is the Capstone research question.
APPENDIX #1
Cattle Fever Tick Surveillance in Texas
Written by Angela M. Pelzel, DVM, Area Epidemiology Officer

Cattle fever ticks (Boophilus microplus and Boophilus annulatus) were likely first introduced to North America as an exotic tick species, arriving on cattle and horses transported to the New World by Spanish colonialists.1 These ticks are capable of carrying and transmitting bovine babesiosis, once called "Texas fever", which is a protozoal disease caused by Babesia bigemina or Babesia bovis. Now considered an exotic disease in the United States, bovine babesiosis has caused significant economic damage to the cattle industry in the past through production losses and high mortality.
One of the more notable accounts of babesiosis in the United States occurred in 1868, when a disastrous epizootic broke out among native cattle in Illinois and Indiana. As a result of the importation to these States of apparently healthy cattle from Texas, 15,000 head of cattle died.2 At the time, Texas cattle were relatively immune to the disease because of frequent exposure to fever ticks, but when Texas cattle carrying infective ticks were driven to northern markets, the resident susceptible cattle had no protective immunity and were essentially eliminated by the disease.
Bovine babesiosis led to the creation of a National Cattle Fever Tick Eradication Program in 1906, which was targeted to include all or part of 14 southern States: Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and southern California, where cattle industries were being crippled by the disease and exclusion from the northern markets.3 By 1943, the eradication campaign had essentially been declared complete, and all that remained was a permanent quarantine zone along the Rio Grande River in south Texas. This permanent quarantine zone exists to this day as an approximately 500-mile-long swath of land stretching from Del Rio to Brownsville, Texas, ranging in width from several hundred yards to approximately 10 miles.

(PDF) Cattle Fever Tick Surveillance in Texas. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237291572_Cattle_Fever_Tick_Surveillance_in_Texas [accessed Jun 23 2018].

APPENDIX #2
TEXAS CATTLE FEVER TICK
(January 2017)

Texas Animal Health Commission
P.O. Box 12966
Austin, TX 78711-2966
www.tahc.texas.gov
(800) 550-8242

What is the Cattle Fever Tick? Cattle Fever ticks, known scientifically as Rhipicephalus (formerly Boophilus) annulatus and R. microplus, are a significant threat to the United States cattle industry. These ticks are capable of carrying the protozoa, or microscopic parasites, Babesia bovis or B. bigemina, commonly known as cattle fever or babesiosis. Babesia attacks and destroys the animals' red blood cells, causing acute anemia, high fever, and enlargement of the spleen and liver, ultimately resulting in death for up to 90 percent of susceptible naive (no exposure to Babesia) cattle.

Fever Tick Lifecycle Cattle fever ticks go through three life stages while on an animal host: Larva, nymph, and adult. Female fever ticks will stay on one animal for the duration of her life. After female fever ticks are fully engorged she will drop off of the animal and lay up to 4,000 eggs on the ground. The eggs will hatch into larvae, which will attach to animals that walk by, and the life cycle continues. Cattle fever ticks become infected with Babesia when they consume blood from an infected animal. When the tick reproduces, Babesia will pass on to its larvae. The fever tick larvae will then pass Babesia to cattle on which they attach.
APPENDIX #3

Connecticut Regulates Salt Marsh Alterations
"The Mosquito Plague of the Connecticut Coast Region and How to Control It"
Bulletin #173, July 1912
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station
New Haven, CT
July 2012 – The Sound School

"In recent years, however, salt hay farming seems to have been neglected (1904 report details 50% of the salt marsh in Connecticut was at one time under salt hay marsh farming) though it is hard to understand why as the hay still brings a price ranging from $7.00 to $12.00 per ton, and there is quite a demand for it for packing, bedding and mulching material" (pg. 6 – W.E. Britton, CT State Entomologist, 1912).

In actual fact, the numerous mosquito ditches made salt hay cutting much more difficult (Imagine a dry hay field with trenches every 30 feet) and wide ditches for horse hay cutters needed bridges.  That spring, tides floated them away and had to be replaced.  Comments from Charles Beebe of Madison mentioned the large numbers of biting insects and that once firm marshes cut for hay grew soft and horse teams sank into them (See "Salt Marshes – A Climate Change Bacterial Battlefield" posted on the Blue Crab ForumTM Environment and Conservation Thread October 7, 2015). (In our area, horses were equipped with wider horseshoes to prevent sinking – on display at the Durham Fair Agricultural Exhibit Hall).  In actual fact, ditching made salt harvests at times impossible, and numerous New England reports (Wellfleet, MA – Herring River Dike) made any work outdoors at times almost unbearable and subject to the threat of disease, especially Malaria.  The dikes in heat, built to keep water off to allow salt haying, were breached and sulfate waters introduced into marsh peat.  In this heat, drained marshes soon "sunk" as sulfate reduction now created more habitat for mosquitoes soft wet surfaces.  Thus, the condition of the marshes sinking, softening the rise of mosquitoes and disease all had a climate connection – heat, which was key to public policy formation and the filling of salt marshes or draining them related to Malaria.  As the Wellfleet, MA 1908 public hearing testimony gives a unique view to the Herring River Dike – an effort to control mosquitoes – it was not unique to New England 1880-1920, a period of warmth and a surge in mosquitoes and disease.  Following is a statement in support from Captain Freeman Snow (Wellfleet, MA Herring River Dam):

"This dike is being built for the extermination of the mosquitoes.  They are what is called a public nuisance.  I have known parties to come here to Wellfleet (Massachusetts Cape Cod – T. Visel) and they say "What are you going to do with these mosquitoes?"  The next day they pack their trunks and go.  That is what these enterprising men of Wellfleet are trying to do today, to exterminate the mosquitoes.  If they can stop the saltwater from going over these meadows and these places that are filled with mosquitoes, why they are doing a great thing for the town."

An important mention of salt marsh sinking salt hay loss as written testimony (in opposition) submitted by Levi L. Higgins, Wellfleet, MA, June 10, 1908 for Public Hearing Navigation Impacts follows:

"Also in my opinion it will ruin one thousand acres of salt meadow hay, which the farmers of this town and Truro [Cape Cod – T. Visel] depend upon for their salt hay.  The meadow foundation is of mud, salt bottom by cutting off the salt matter, it will sink and become a useless marsh, as it is now called by parties in favor of the dike.  But in reality, it is the source of livelihood to many farmers."

Comments from Public Hearing Corps of Engineers U.S. Army, June 10, 1908 – Application of the Board of Harbor and Land Commissioners include:

"Construct A Dam With Sluiceways therein at the mouth of Herring River in the town of Wellfleet for the purpose of excluding the tidewater from said river and draining the marshes on the banks of the same."

Many salt hay farms noticed and recorded during 1900 to 1920 salt hay harvests appeared to lower in salt hay meadows.  Heat most likely accelerated sulfate reduction, and farmers applied sapropel marine mud on hay fields when they could to keep marshes level and productive.  It, however, (dikes and ditches to drain salt marshes) placed a declining salt farm community (Agriculture) against a strong public policy (Public Health) to drain and exclude saltwater as a way to curb Malaria (mosquito habitats).  After many years of suggesting property owners drain them – Connecticut made it the law to do so in 1915.  After suggesting that marsh owners drain them, Connecticut now required it and anyone interfering with such efforts could be fined or imprisoned or both.  CT Chapter 264 Public Acts of 1915 states:

"Any person obstructing the work of examining, surveying or ditching or otherwise treating such mosquito to breading areas, or obstructing any ditch, canal or drain or the natural outlet of any marsh forming mosquito breeding areas shall be fined $100 or imprisoned ninety days or both."

In simple terms, it became a hostile environment to work, always dangerous to horses and operators, each blade of grass held mosquitoes, biting midges (no see ums) and after mid-summer, the dreaded greenhead fly.  Every blade of grass in August could be home to many of these biting insects and mowing the grass would disturb hundreds of thousands of them, like the summer tourists visiting Wellfleet, outside activities ended and that included gathering salt hay.

At first, drained meadows did produce more salt hay, draining exposed peat to oxygen bacteria, which at first produced more nitrate, an important plant nutrient (as George W. Field predicted during this Wellfleet public hearing).  But as summer heat intensified, salt marshes sometimes collapsed as sulfides turned into sulfuric acid, and those salt hayed "sank faster," the result of below surface sulfate bacteria digestion and peat/grass removal.  Acid waters from this result could kill fish as it tended to release aluminum held by clays.  Sinking marshes allowed more sulfate to enter and in low oxygen conditions, marshes disappeared becoming "drowned marshes."  As marshes subsided, they left depressions that filled with water, increasing habitats for mosquitoes, which increased mosquito habitat and the public policy of draining them. 

Only a change in climate would change this condition, and with colder winters, marshes recovered.  This last known mosquito outbreak Eastern Equine Encephalitis was in Massachusetts in 1938.  Evidence of the decline is found in the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Report of the State Entomologist, once a many page report at the turn of the century in 1930 "Mosquito Control in Connecticut" was five pages.  In 1938, it was a summary of work done and then ended in the 1950's as the cold returned to New England.  The Mosquito Plague had diminished with the heavy snowfalls.


APPENDIX #4

Letter To Angela M. Pelzel

Request for Reprint Permission –Texas Cattle Fever Article

From: VISEL, TIM
Sent: Tuesday, July 24, 2018 3:05 PM
To: [email protected]
Subject: Request for Reprint Permission - Texas Cattle Fever

Hello-

I am conducting research on the 1873 introduction of Texas cattle fever into Connecticut via cattle purchases following the bitter cold winter of 1872.

The report is a research proposal for FFA (formerly Future Farmers of America) aligned with the National AFNR Content Standards for Animal System Careers AS.07.01.

The Special Topics Capstone Proposal is for educational use only and I am seeking your permission to use three paragraphs from an article titled "Cattle Fever Tick Surveillance in Texas" for an appendix in a report titled "The Hunt for Texas Cattle Fever: A Cattle Catastrophe for Connecticut in 1873."

The report details the introduction of several hundred cattle from Texas into Connecticut following the bitter cold winter of 1872 with cattle ticks, suspected of having Texas cattle fever.

Thank you for your consideration-

Tim Visel

APPENDIX #5

Malaria in the Connecticut Valley
By
Howard N. Simpson, M.D.


Malaria in the Connecticut Valley

By Howard N. Simpson, M.D.

A forgotten fragment of the medical history of the Connecticut Valley deals with the several outbreaks of what our forebears called the ague (rhymes with plague you) from a French word meaning acute.  What was acute was the abrupt onset of a severe chill followed by a high fever.  Nowadays the disease is known as malaria and is seldom seen outside of the tropics.  However, given the right combination of anopheline mosquitoes, humans infected with malarial parasites and individuals who are not immune, the disease may spread during warm weather in other climates.

Malaria was not indigenous to North American prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the West Indies in the 16th century.  Many years later the Dutch apparently brought it to New Amsterdam; at least we know that some of them suffered severely from it.  They seem to have been the ones to introduce the disorder to southern Connecticut.  Amy, the wife of John Pynchon, had characteristic bouts of chills and fever in Springfield in 1654.

Early in the following century Rev. Stephen Williams, the first pastor of the church in Longmeadow, described in his diary his miseries and periodic attacks in this manner: "May 14, 1716: This day I had a very bad fit of ye feavor & ague."  The entries continued in this vein for the next two months.

Until about 1750 the disease was common during warm weather, i.e. when mosquitoes were common, in southern New England, and then retreated – no one knows why.  It continued to be a scourge in New York, New Jersey and farther south and was a major source of harassment to the British troops during the American Revolution.

-------------------------------------         
Dr. Simpson is the author of Invisible Armies, the Impact of Disease on American History (Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. $12.95).  He lives in Wilbraham, MA.